A

Absolute

Certain; objective; without cause; consistent with what is real; immutable as to its essential being; reliable as to

Abstract

A property or quality that is distinct from the subject of its origin.  Hence, a football player may be described as being "tough," but toughness is an abstraction of the proper or quality of what it means to be "tough."  Or, a cardinal is a little, red bird, but redness is an abstract of the property or quality of what it means to be red.

Absurd(ity)

A logical contradiction or irrational conclusion (e.g., an 8-sided triangle, or, Grape-Nuts cereal is a combination of grapes and nuts).

Accident

The property associated with a given being, which if removed would not change the essence of that being (e.g., a tree loosing its leaves in the Fall does not change the essence of the tree being a tree).

Ad baculum

Fallacy of diversion, whereby the arguer appeals to force or fear, rather than reason.  E.g., "If you don't do exactly as you're told, young man, then you're going to be grounded for six weeks," or, "Either use it or lose it; it's your choice."

Ad hoc Hypothesis

A proposition that can only pertain to one case, and cannot, by placement in a different situation, be tested in the same manner.

Ad hominem

Literally, "to the face" or "to the man;" an attack upon the person rather than the argument or message which the person proposes; the use of a premise advocating by an opponent to refute the credibility of the opponent himself.

Ad ignominiam

Fallacious appeal to shame in argumentation.  E.g., A Christian has no business teaching a science course in public school because we all know that Christians are nothing but a bunch of hypocrites.  Or, anyone claiming that morals are absolute are bigots.

Ad ignorantiam

Fallacious appeal to ignorance.  E.g., Secular historians never recorded the existence of Jesus, therefore, he did not exist.  Or, that guy over there has no experience in making widgets, therefore he can't possibly be a widget maker.

Ad infinitum

Forever and ever, without end.

Ad misericordiam

Fallacious appeal to pity in argumentation.  E.g., When a child whines that mom or dad doesn't love him anymore because they made him clean up his room.  Or, when a person arrested for buying or selling drugs pleas with the officer that it wouldn't be right for him to be arrested, simply because there will be no one at home to take care of his children.

Ad populum

Fallacious appeal to popular opinion.  E.g., A majority of people believe that science is about facts, while religion is about faith.

Ad verecundiam

Fallacy of diversion, whereby the arguer fallaciously appeals to authority, or the appeal is to an illegitimate authority.  E.g., (1) "Dale Earnhart is the greatest race car driver ever!"  "Who says?"  "Richard Simmons."  (2) "Every time that gentleman experiences chest pains he calls his brother for advice."  "Is his brother a heart specialist?"  "No.  He works for the sanitation department, but he's read some books on the subject."

Aesthetics

The science and/or study of that which pertains to beauty.  Art is considered an aesthetic discipline.

Accent

Fallacy of language which uses voice inflection, irony, sarcasm, facial expressions or innuendo, to blur the meaning of a statement or sentence (e.g., "We don't have to follow the speed limit."  The fallacy is to assume that everyone else must, though.  or "We don't have to follow the speed limit."  The fallacy is to confuse personal choice with obligation).

A fortiori

Literally, "all the more," or a statement involving the likely inclusion of other scenarios (e.g. if the army can defeat the enemy army of 10,000, how much more likely will it defeat an army of ten).

Agnosticism

The philosophical worldview which believes that there is not enough knowledge available to determine whether or not God exists.  It is the middle-ground system of belief between theism and atheism.

Allegory

A metaphorical substitute for a literal reality (see Galatians 4:21-31).

Amphiboly

A fallacy of language dealing with the ambiguous usage of syntax or grammatical structure in a sentence (e.g., In the comedy movie Airplane, when Leslie Nielsen's character (Dr. Rumack) asks Robert Hays (Ted Striker), "Can you fly this plane and land it?"  Ted responds, "Surely you can't be serious."  Dr. Rumack retorts, "I am serious.  And don't call me Shirley."  "Don't call me Shirley" is the amphiboly, or ambiguous phrase.

Analogia Entis

Latin expression meaning "analogy of being."  The attempt to unite eternal and temporal realities in meaningful understanding (e.g., Eternal love was temporally expressed in the incarnation of Jesus Christ).

Analogy

The similarity of two realities in comparison to each other, as in the tornado sounded like a freight train.

Antinomy

A contradictory statement resulting from a thesis statement in conflict with an antithetical statement.  E.g., when word was received that the Titanic had sunk, that was an antinomy which contradicted the statements of those who said it would never sink.

Apologetics

From the Greek word apologia, which means "defense" or to speak in defense of something (see Acts 22:1; 25:16; 1 Cor. 9:3; 2 Cor. 7:11; Phil. 1:7, 16; 2 Tim. 4:16; 1 Pet. 3:15).  When used in reference to the Christian faith, it means to defend the grammatical-historical tenets which comprise orthodox Christianity.

A priori

Apart from the senses.

Argument

One or more stated premises leading to a conclusion, even though not all arguments are equally valid, or valid at all.  Hence, Socrates is a man.  All men die.  Therefore, Socrates, being a man, will die, is a valid argument.  Whereas, Socrates is a man.  All bachelors are men.  Therefore, Socrates is a bachelor, is an invalid argument.

Aristotelianism

The philosophy of Aristotle, as rooted in empirical or practical thought.

Assumption

A presupposition or a postulation.

Ateleological

Without purpose or goal.  The opposite of teleological.

Atheism

The philosophical worldview which adheres to the idea that God does not exist.

Autonomy

Self-governing.  Depending upon whom adheres to the position is also claiming to be self-existent or a se.  Yet, only God is a se and absolutely autonomous.  Therefore, anyone claiming to be autonomous in the true sense of word is implicitly admitting self-existence, which is idolatry.

Axiology

Compound Greek word, derived from axios — which means "worth," "worthy," "deserving," "appropriate," "acceptable" (cf. Matt. 10:10f, 37f; Luke 7:4; 10:7; 15:19, 21; John 1:27; Acts 13:25; 1 Tim. 1:15; 4:9; 5:18; Heb. 11:38; Rev. 4:11; 5:2, 4, 9) — and logos — which means "word," "study," "statement," "speech."  Hence, axiology is the study of the values, morals, and truth.

Axiom

A self-evident truth, such as black cannot be white or that triangles always display only three sides.

B

Bayes's Theorem

The formula used to calculate probability of a hypothesis given the available evidence.  Calculation usually takes place within the realm of symbolic logic.

Becoming

A state of flux in which the essential nature of a being or thing changes from one state of reality to another state of reality; a state of mutability.

Being

That which is in a real sense; existence as opposed to non-existence.

Belief

From the Greek word pistis, which means "faith," "trust," dependence," "commitment," "promise," "pledge," etc.  A gift from God (Rom. 12:3) which enables the non-believer to believe, resulting in the further enablement to perform the works that God has already pre-ordained for the believer to do (Eph. 2:10).

Bible

The inspired revelation of God concerning Himself, which contains 66 books written by 40+ authors covering 1,500+ years, for the expression purpose that humanity would not be without an objective guide concerning himself and his obligation to love and serve God with his whole being; God's absolute authority in matters of Christian faith and practice.

C

Categorical Imperative

The ethical maxim of Immanuel Kant, whereby one was to act as if something were true or real, to the point of making it a universal law.

Cause

The necessary source to implement the movement unto an effect.  Hence, God is considered the necessary First Cause of all that humans see in existence, including themselves, without such cause, nothing would exist.

Christian

A person who has been drawn by God (Jn. 6:44), spiritually regenerated ("born again") by the Holy Spirit (Jn. 3:3-5), and follows the person of Jesus Christ according to the declarations revealed within the pages of the Bible.

Cogito Ergo Sum

The argument postulated by Rene Decartes to prove his existence: "I think, therefore I am."

Coherent

The end-result of postulations and propositions that are "horizontally self-consistent and vertically fit the facts."

Composition

Fallacy in argumentation when someone argues from a part to a whole, while ignoring that what may be true of the part in not necessarily true of the whole.  E.g., Chico Esquela represented the 1962 New York Mets on the All-Star Team.  Therefore, the 1962 Mets were a great team!  (The 1962 Mets Win-Loss record was 40-120).

Contingent or Contingency

That which depends upon another for its temporal mode of existence or being.  Hence, when Mormonism advocates the infinite regression of familial gods and goddesses alleged to exist, none of which can exist with a Father and Mother god, Mormonism is further ascribing contingency to its theology.

Contradictory

Conflicting statements or propositions which cannot lead to the truth as determined by the Law of Non-Contradiction.  In other words, two contrary statements concerning the same subject cannot both be true at the same time, in the same circumstance.

Conventionalism

Also known as Normal Ethical Relativism, the belief is that society establishes what is right or wrong, truthful and erroneous, and that the individuals making up the society ought to adhere to societal proclamation simply because society "says so."

Cult

From a purely theological point of view, an aberration or caricature of Christianity; a group of two or more persons espousing theological beliefs, whether explicitly or implicitly, which are contrary to orthodox Christian beliefs as defined according to a grammatical-historical exegesis of the Bible.  See the article "What is Cultism" for a more detailed explanation.

D

Deductive Argument

An argument where the premises guarantee the conclusion, or arguing from a general conclusion back to the specific premises.

De Facto

Actual.  Real.   As a matter of fact.

Defeasible

That which is made null and void, such as through the introduction of a defeater in an argument, or a propositional statement which contradicts what is considered a known fact.

Defeater

There are two kinds of defeaters: rebutting and undercutting.  Both serve to attack, either directly (rebutting) or indirectly (undercutting), the conclusion of a given claim, thereby eliminating the justification for a given belief.

Deism

Theological system of belief which denies the immanent involvement of a personal God in the affairs of His creation, while advocating the position that God is transcendent in respect to history.

Demiurge

Plato's intermediary creator of the universe, as well as the Gnostics demigod, which was regularly considered evil, that was subordinate to the supreme deity.  Hence, the god of the Old Testament (the demiurge) is considered to be a totally different god than the one in the New Testament.

Determinism

The belief that all events and causes have been foreordained to occur through the direct intervention of someone or something, apart from the being or thing acted upon.

Dialecticism or Dialectical Theology

"Crisis Theology," "Realism," or "Neo-orthodoxy."  A reaction to the humanistic reasoning of the Enlightenment Period, by attempting to restore knowledge of the personal, transcendent God by referring to the biblical standard, through "dialectic," or the establishing of truth by following a hypothesis to its logical conclusion.

Dicto Simpliciter

Fallacious application of a general principle to a special case.  E.g., The woman knows what a piano is, therefore she must be able to play Mozart.  And if she can't play Mozart, then just has to be able to fine-tune the piano.

Dualism

The worldview which espouses the belief in the existence of two metaphysical realities that are typically in confrontation with each other (e.g., God v. the Devil, Good v. Evil, or Light v. Darkness).  It is the underlying theme of the Star Wars saga made popular by film maker George Lucas.

E

Effable

Explainable using words; the opposite of ineffable.

Efficient Cause

The means by which an effect takes place (e.g., when a train engine pulls a train car, that is considered an efficient cause for the car's movement).

Emanation

The pantheistic belief that all of existence flows from the existence of God by necessity, thereby further assuming that all is God.

Empirical or Empiricism

The philosophical worldview which attempts to arrive at knowledge strictly through sense perception (hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, smelling).

Enlightenment Period

Seventeenth and Eighteenth century reaction to the Reformation Period, whereby it was proposed that true knowledge could be arrived at purely through human reason, instead of divine revelation.

Epistemology

Compound Greek word, from episteme, meaning "knowledge," or "understanding," and logos — which means "word," "study," "statement," "speech."   Therefore, epistemology is the study or doctrine of knowledge, how it is discerned, and how it is arrived at.

Equivocation

Ascribing a singular term with two meanings as if it had only one; ambiguity during the course of argument whereby terms are confused (e.g., All freight trains travel on trestles.  The tornado sounded like a freight train.  Therefore, all tornadoes travel on trestles. Freight train is the equivocated expression).

Eschatology

Compound Greek word from eschatos, meaing "last," "the end," or "final," (cf. Mark 9:35; 1 Cor. 15:26, 45; Rev. 1:17; 2:8; 22:13) and logos — which means "word," "study," "statement," "speech."  Hence, eschatology is the study of last things, which includes prophecy, death, dying, etc.

Evidence

That which makes something evident, perceptive, clear, obvious, or plain to the understanding of either the inquirer into a particular question, or to the one being presented the evidence; proof; an objective foundation for belief.

Evidentialism

The view that if a particular religious belief is to be held as credible, then it must have supporting, reasonable evidence; a position typically held by most atheists.

Essence

That which comprises the being of a person or thing, without which the person or being would not exist.

Ethics

From the Greek word ethos, which means "custom," "habit," "usage" (cf. Luke 1:9; 2:42; 22:39; John 19:40; Acts 25:16; Heb. 10:25).  Hence, ethics is the study of customs, with the express purpose of discerning what is right for living.

Ex Nihilo

Literally, "out of nothing;" theistic worldview which describes the creative act of God, who created all things in existence "out of nothing" (cf. Isa. 66:2; John 1:3; Rom. 4:17; 11:36; 1 Cor. 8:6).

Existence

That which is; a state of real being; a univocal genus that is applied to all things; the belonging of a property.

Existentialism

"A philosophical movement which stresses that existence is prior to essence; the concrete and individual is over the abstract and universal" (Geisler and Feinberg, Introduction to Philosophy, 431).  Sören Kierkegaard, the Father of existentialism, believed that the realization of absolute truth came by participating in it, not by merely accepting propositions.  In other words, truth was subjective, and not objective, meaning that until one experienced it, then one did not possess it.

F

Fact

A unit of being that can have a direct bearing upon meaning; a thing that has been or is true; actuality; that which is consistent with reality and objective truth.

Faith

From the Hebrew word aman and the Greek word pistis, both of which, along with their cognates, mean "believe," "trust," "rely" or "reliable," "prove," "depend."  "No secular text can offer a parallel to NT or OT 'faith,' but pistis, which derives from peithomai ('be persuaded, have confidence, obey'), connotes persuasion, conviction, and commitment, and always implies confidence, which is expressed in human relationships as fidelity, trust, assurance, oath, proof, guarantee" (TLOT, 3:110).  "Trust which one puts into practice, faith" (EDNT, 3:93).  "Faith in Christ is used first in the same sense as faith in God, in contrast to those who do not yet know the one God, who do not yet believe in Him, who have first to 'believe' in Him in the sense of acknowledging His existence if they are to be able to 'believe' in Him in the OT sense of the word" (TDNT, 6:208).

Fideism

The view that whatever can be known about God is known primarily through faith, and not by reason, intellectual assent, or appeal to empirical evidence.

Final Cause

The ultimate source of an effect, as when God created the universe, and all it contains.  He is the "final" or source "cause" of all that is (cf. John 1:3, 10; Rom. 11:36; 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:16).

Finite

Specific limitations or boundaries; measurable; definable; the opposite of infinite.

Finite Godism

The belief that there is a god that exists, but that it is limited in its power and love.  The reason for the latter belief is arrived at by observing the amount and kind of evil that concurrently exists as well.  Therefore, if "God" was truly omnipotent and omnibenevolent, then surely either evil would not exist, or it would be severely curtailed, so the argument goes.

Foundationalism

The view that all knowledge rests upon certain foundations, whether they be basic or non-basic; basic foundations are those which do not require evidence for the substantiation of their truth value (e.g. balloons filled with helium float), whereas non-basic foundations are justified according to the relationship they share with basic foundations (e.g., at "x" altitude, "x" balloon will explode due to atmospheric pressure).

G

Genus

A general classification of objects whereby the objects within the class possess the same qualities or attributes (e.g., all dogs are in the Canis genus, or, all humans belong to the Homo genus).

Gnosticism

An ecclesiastical heresy which advocated that the physical realm was evil, while only the spiritual realm was good.  Hence, God was good and matter was evil and that by joining oneself within its exclusive ranks and attaining the necessary esoteric knowledge that was only privy to the Gnostic clan, that person could save himself through that knowledge.

God

I. There is but one only living and true God, who is infinite in being and perfection, a most pure spirit, invisible, without body, parts, or passions, immutable, immense, eternal, incomprehensible, almighty, most wise, most holy, most free, most absolute, working all things according to the counsel of his own immutable and most righteous will, for his own glory; most loving, gracious, merciful, long-suffering, abundant in goodness and truth, forgiving iniquity, transgression, and sin; the rewarder of them that diligently seek him; and withal most just and terrible in his judgments; hating all sin, and who will by no means clear the guilty.  (Westminster Confession of Faith).

Godhead

The One God expressed in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, or the Trinity.

Good

That which meets with God's approval, as a reflection of His person.

Grace

From the Hebrew word chen and the Greek word charis, and meaning "favor," "charm," "popular;" "…the positive disposition one person has toward another.  It can also mean 'respect' (Prov. 28:23; Lam. 4:16" (TDOT, 5:24); "An accurate, common definition describes grace as the unmerited favor of God toward man" (Elwell, Baker Theological Dictionary of the Bible, 312).

Grammar

The rules of language for structuring sentences whereby efficient and/or effective communication is possible between two or more conversing parties.

H

Hedonism

The ethical philosophy which encourages self-pleasuring indulgence, given that pleasure is the greatest good.  Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill were two of its primary founders, with Mill tending toward a modified form of hedonism called "Utilitarianism."

Heresy

From the Greek word hairesis, which means choice or opinion, but took on the negative connotation as an aberration, faction, or destructive doctrine (cf. Acts 5:17; 15:5; 24:5, 14; 26:5; 28:22; 1 Cor. 11:19; *Gal. 5:20; *2 Pet. 2:1).  "In the early church, heresy did not refer to simply any doctrinal disagreement, but to something that seemed to undercut the very basis for Christian existence.  Practically speaking, heresy involved the doctrine of God and the doctrine of Christ—later called "special theology" and "Christology" (Harold O. J. Brown, Heresies, 2-3).

Holy Spirit

Third person of the Godhead, who is God, very God; the One Who proceeds from both the Father and the Son; the promised Comforter whose mission is to "convict the world concerning sin, and righteousness, and judgment" (John 16:9).

Horizontal Self-Consistency

Propositions that are free from contradictions; statements that are in harmony with the Law of Non-Contradiction.

Humanism

"The point of view that holds that it is possible to lead a good life and contribute significantly to human welfare and social justice without a belief in theistic religion or benefit of clergy.  Human beings, as free, autonomous individuals, can discover that life can be good and bountiful.  Humanist morality can provide a genuine basis for excellence and nobility.  Moreover, it is closely related to developments in modern science, and hence is a naturalistic philosophy."  Paul Kurtz, In Defense of Secular Humanism, vii.

Hyperbole or Hyperbolic

Exaggeration; overstatement; embellishment; absurd extension.  Typically seen in contemporary reporting of the news on TV or Radio.  E.g., Reporter: "And we now have breaking news on the recovery of the Frisbee that was reportedly lost last night.  It turns out that it was in the garage after all.  Back to you Jane."  Or, "It's against the law to shout 'Fire!' in a crowded theatre."  "Oh, so you're against the Constitutional right of freedom of speech, is that what you're saying?"  Shouting "Fire" in a crowded theatre is not a free speech issue; it's a safety issue. 

Hypothesis

A theory that is yet unproven; an assumption; an unfounded judgment which the mind entertains and tests to either validate or invalidate as true or false.

I

Idealism

The epistemological worldview which asserts that reality consists in the world of ideas and in the mind rather than in the physical world.  George Berkeley and Immanuel Kant were two prime exponents of idealistic thought.

Immanent

Living within; the complement to transcendence when pertaining to God.  Hence, God's presence is immanent in the universe in an omnipresent way, meaning that He lives everywhere within the universe simultaneously (cf. Isa. 12:6; Zeph. 3:15; Zech. 2:5).  "Transcendence and immanence are not separable in the Hebraic faith.  The very One who is beyond the finite and human is intimately manifested and warmly knowable within the human sphere" (Oden, Systematic Theology, 1:81).

Implicit

Tacit; inherent; implicative; taken for granted; logical deduction.  E.g., pine trees are implicit in pine cones; sudden death is implicit in jumping off a 50-story building; an automobile is implicit in the auto factory assembly line.

Immortality

The belief in the eternal existence of living beings, including man and God.  Of course, only God is eternally immortal in an infinite sense, given his non-contingent, self-existent being, whereas everyone and everything else that possesses being and life are only conditionally immortal, given their contingency and creation in space and time from a state of non-being (Isa. 66:2; Jn. 1:3; Rom. 4:17; 11:36; 1 Cor. 8:6; Rev. 4:11).

Inductive Argument

An argument which argues from specific, valid premises to a general conclusion.  E.g., All men are mortal.  President Bush is a man.  Conclusion: President Bush is mortal.

Ineffable

Not explainable by using words; inexpressible; speechless.

Inerrant

Without error; infallible.

Infinite

No limits or measurable boundaries; an attribute that only pertains to God Almighty, and nothing, nor anyone else (cf. Gen. 1:1; *Ps. 90:2, 4; 93:2; 102:24; 139:7-12; Jer. 23:23-24; John 1:1; 17:5; Acts 17:24-27).

Infinite Regress

The belief that all causes are infinitely contingent without any first principle or "First Cause" to initiate the chain of subsequent events.

Irrational

Contrary to what is rational or reasonable; non-sensical; absurd; unsound; the result of violating the Law of Non-Contradiction.

Irrelevant

Unrelated to, or having no bearing upon, the subject; impertinent; unconnected; unsuitable for constructive meaning.

J

Jesus Christ

The second person of Trinity; God, very God, in human form.  The Messiah or Savior of humanity; King of kings and Lord of lords.  Begotten, but not created, by the Holy Spirit, in a supernatural incarnation.  The eternal Son of God, who possesses both human and divine attributes and natures perfectly and indivisibly.

Judgment

To make a determination, preferably based upon objective criteria whereby reasonable justice is not only served, but absolute truth is exalted. 

Justification

"Justification is a divine act whereby an infinitely Holy God judicially declares a believing sinner to be righteous and acceptable before Him because Christ has borne the sinner's sin on the cross and has become 'to us…righteousness' (1 Cor. 1:30; Rom. 3:24)."--The New Unger's Bible Dictionary, 729.

K

Kalaam Argument

Cosmological argument for the existence of God, which attempts to prove that the universe has not existed eternally, but that it had a beginning, was caused, and was initiated by a person, namely God.

L

Law of Excluded Middle

The law which says that a proposition or subject must be true, while its opposite is false, or true.  There is no in-between.  E.g., All men are mortal excludes the possibility that some men are not, or no men are mortal, whereas the proposition that no animals are mammals leads to the opposite conclusion, since some animals are mammals.

Law of Non-Contradiction

The law which says that a proposition or subject cannot be both true and false in the same sense at the same time.  E.g., the destruction of the World Trade Center, September 11, 2001, cannot be attributed to both Islamic terrorists and the government of the United States.  Either one is true and the other false, or they are both false.

Logic

The science of examining propositional statements to discern their validity and/or rationality.

M

Materialism

Closely related to Physicalism, it is the belief that the only things in existence are those which are composed of material or physical substances.

Meaning

That which gives a person or thing its significance as a being in real time and space.  "Fruit of the mind's evaluation of fact" (Carnell, Christian Apologetics, 366).

Metanarratives

Those objective criteria which give meaning to life, e.g., God's divine providence.  "According to postmodernism, a religious tradition or philosophical system that commits acts of cultural tyranny by promoting the fiction that all knowledge reduces to a set of universally applicable truths" (McCallum, The Death of Truth, 282).

Metaphysics

The study of the science of ultimate being; "the philosophical study of the nature of being or reality and the ultimate categories or kinds of things that are real" (Moreland & Craig, Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview, 173).

Miracle

An extraordinary act of God whereby events, people, places, and things are effected in ways that are contrary to normal movement in the course of time and space.

Modernity

"Modernity describes historical and cultural developments such as the emergence of capitalism in the fifteenth century, the movement from feudalism and monarchy to democratic arrangements in Europe and America over several centuries, the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century and the communications revolution of the twentieth century.  The forces of modernity that persist today are international capitalism, the information revolution, international travel, democratic governance as an ideal, and pluralization through freedom of religion and liberalized immigration laws."  (Groothuis, Truth Decay, 52-53).

Monism

The belief that there is only one substance or principle for which all exists, and that there is in reality no division of independent parts.

Mystic

A person claiming to know God through intuitive, spiritual perception rather than through, or in association with, divine revelation that is objectively verifiable.

N

Naturalism

The atheistic belief that nature is all that there is, ever was, and ever will be.

Neo-Orthodoxy

Also known as "Crisis Theology" and "Dialectical Theology," as was the reaction of theologians such as Karl Barth against modernism's immanence theology, to restore belief in a transcendent God via the self-revelation found in Jesus.  Dialecticism was the method of analysis used to arrive at the goal, by setting opposites against each other, which also caused quite a bit of controversy in terms of biblical revelation and absolute authority in matters of faith and practice.

Nihilism

"Nihilism is the negation of everything—knowledge, ethics, beauty, reality.  In nihilism no statement had validity; nothing has meaning.  Everything is gratuitous, de trop, that is, just there." (Sire, The Universe Next Door, 75).  An expression found among some Nihilist thinkers is nihil est in intellectu nisi prius fuerit in sensu or there is nothing in the intellect that was not first in the senses.  The mind is the tabula rasa, or blank slate, upon which human experience is written.

Nominalism

The denial of universal principles, values, and standards.  A position typically upheld by those involved in postmodern thought.  Therefore, principles, values, and standards merely become names for groups of things, rather than the essence of those things which make them what they are.

Non-Sequitur

"It does not follow."  "The conclusion simply does not logically follow from the premises or reasons or evidence given" (Kreeft, Socratic Logic, 92).  E.g., All NFL football players are men, therefore, all men are NFL football players.  Or, Colorado is a beautiful state, with the purple Rocky Mountains.  Barney is a cartoon character who wears a purple suit.  Therefore, Barney's suit is made up of the Rocky Mountains.

Norm

Normal; the standard by which others are held by comparison; objective criteria resorted to, to judge the validity of other things; the "ought" value ethical behavior.  E.g. It is the norm, or normal, for a man and woman to fall in love, marry, and have children.  Or, the resurrection of Jesus Christ is the standard by which to determine the validity of Christianity.

O

Objective Truth

That which exists in and of itself, and is consistent with reality, as in the person and being of God, who is the ultimate source of all objective truth.  The opposite of subjective truth, which reflects the sentiments and tastes of the one doing the evaluating, and says nothing about the object in question.  E.g., 2+2=4 or judging an act of premeditated murder as wrong is objective truth, regardless of what anyone says about them.  Claiming that God does not exist or that barbequed hamburgers are better than veal parmesan are subjective claims that deal with personal preference and not objective truth.

Ockam's Razor

The principle which discourages the unnecessary multiplication of explanations or causes to further explain a given phenomenon.  Nevertheless, such a principle necessarily creates a problem, at times, by pitting physical properties against metaphysical or spiritual properties, such as in the mind-body dualism that exists in all human beings.  Hence, while the "razor" may work to explain some phenomenon, it fails to explain others.

Occult

Hidden; obscure; cloaked; secret.  "The word 'occult' comes from the Latin verb which means 'to hide.'  The occult is 'the hidden'…anything people don't fully understand yet, anything which seems mysterious and baffles understanding." (Chapman, Shadows of the Supernatural, 133).  Some examples of occult practices would include magic, witchcraft, voodoo, séances, mediumship, channeling, conjuring, or any other supernatural or supernormal practice, ritual, or communication that is done in secrecy for the express purposes of communicating with the spirit-world, or the dead, to garner supernatural/supernormal power or exclusive information to manipulate reality.

Ontology

See Metaphysics.

Orthodox

Is a compound Greek word, derived from orthōs—which means "right," "correct," "straight" (cf. Mark 7:35; Luke 7:43; 10:28; 20:21)—and dokein—which means "to think," "to believe," "to suppose," "to consider" (BDAG).  Combined the word means right thought, correct belief, straight supposition, etc.  It is the opposite meaning of heresy or heretic.

P

Pagan

Hebrew goy and Greek ethnos, the word is often translated "people," "nation," "heathen" in the OT, and "race," "nation," "Gentiles" in the NT.  Given the breadth of meaning, "The context will generally indicate the specific quality or characteristic which is to be understood" (TWOT, 1:153).  That said, however, a pagan in the NT is generally depicted as one who is distinct from God's chosen people (Eph. 2:11-12), followers of idols (1 Cor. 12:2), and hedonistic in life's walk (1 Cor. 2:14; 1 Pet. 4:3).

Panentheism

"Panentheism is the belief that God is in the world the way a soul or mind is in a body…it believes that God is not infinite in nature and power but finite or limited.  Others label it dipolar or bipolar theism since, in contrast to traditional monopolar theism, it hold that there are two poles to God, namely, an actual temporal pole and a potential eternal pole…In the contemporary world the major form of this position is represented in process theology, which holds that the finite, bipolar god is in a continual process of change.  In this form it is sometimes called organicism because of its stress on the organic relationship of all factors of the world process."  (Geisler, Christian Apologetics, 193).

Pantheism

"The word pantheism derives from the Greek words pan (='all') and theos (='God').  Thus, pantheism means 'All is God.'  In essence, pantheism holds that the universe as a whole is divine, and that there is no divinity other than the universe and nature."  (Harrison, The Elements of Pantheism, 1).

Particularism

The epistemological view which asserts that some things can be known without having to prove that they are known or how those things came to be known.  E.g., 2+2=4 or murder is wrong.

Pascal's Wager

The pragmatic argument issued by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, which postulated that there was nothing to lose by believing in God's existence, other than the finite pleasures associated with sin, and everything to gain.  Conversely, for someone to disbelieve in the existence of God, one merely gained whatever finite pleasures this life had to offer, while losing everything in the next life.

Percept

The opposite of concept, a percept is an impression made upon the mind through sense experiences.

Petitio Principii

"Begging the question" or circular reasoning.  Begging for the conclusion which is already in one of the premises of an argument.  Automatically assuming what one sets out to prove.  E.g., The squirrels in the park will be tested before they are euthanized.  Or, "I think, therefore, I am"—Descartes' famous dictum.

Phenomenon

Activity or event within the realm of time and space reality; the appearance of something in contradistinction to the actual thing itself.

Philosophy

A compound Greek word derived from philos, meaning "love," "friend," "intimate," and sophia, meaning "wisdom," "insight," "understanding."  Hence, philosophy is the love of wisdom or the friend of insight.  A more contemporary understanding would be that philosophy is the science or discipline which attempts to provide a rational or reasonable explanation of reality.

Physicalism

Strict Physicalism asserts that all things in existence are physical in one of three ways: (1) that which can be defined by physics or chemistry; (2) that which can be defined by biology; (3) that which can be defined physically according to commonsense.

Polemics

The art of argumentation, debate, and disputation.  "Whereas apologetics involves the defense of Christian theism, polemics is the task of criticizing and refuting alternative views of the world."  (Moreland & Craig, Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview, 15).

Polytheism

Compound Greek word from polus, meaning "many," "much," "large number," and theos, meaning "God."  There polytheism means "many gods," or the belief in a "large number" of gods.  It is the antithesis of monotheism, which means "one God," or atheism which means "no god."

Positivism

The philosophical worldview which attempts to explain reality in terms divorced from any theological or metaphysical explanation.

Postmodernism

“[P]ostmodernism reduces even the most cherished scientific theories to relativistic, culture-bound social constructs.  Moreover, it does so in the name of ‘liberation’ from the dead hand of rationalism—and from the impersonal, industrialized society that rationalism has produced.”  Nancy Pearcy, Total Truth, 114.

“Postmodernism is an outlook that depends not a little on what are perceived to be the fundamental limitations on the power of interpretation: that is, since interpretation can never be more that my interpretation or our interpretation, no purely objective stance is possible.”  D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God, 57.

Pragmatism

The philosophical worldview which contends that truth is not known or realized objectively, but subjectively through the experiences of what works for the moment.

Predication

"That act of mind in which a subject is related to a predicate.  The act of making judgments.  The formation of propositions."  (Carnell, An Introduction to Christian Apologetics, 368).

Premise

A statement or proposition of fact, or apparent fact, leading to a conclusion.  E.g., "Chico Esquela was a great baseball player", or, "There is a man in the moon", are both premises.  The conclusions might be, Therefore Chico needs to be in the Hall of Fame, or, That is why a full moon looks like a man's face on clear night.

Proposition

The most basic unit of knowledge in an argument; a premise; a statement of fact, or assumed fact leading up to a conclusion, which includes a subject, connecting verb, and predicate.

Propositional Knowledge

Knowledge which is justifiably true, but is also objectively warranted.

Q

Qua

Latin term meaning "in the function of," "in the character of," or "in the capacity."  E.g., The Department Head acted qua CEO of the corporation.

R

Rationalism

The philosophical viewpoint which asserts that truth may be known merely through instinctive, a priori, human reason alone.  Some influential Rationalists were Rene Decartes, Benedict Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz.

Rationality

The result of being rational or reasonable; having the ability to formulate concepts and ideas, contemplate, deliberate; an attribute in creation exclusively reserved for human beings, whereby intent may be determined of the one acting or by those observing the action.

Realism

The doctrine of Neo-Orthodoxy.

Reductio ad absurdum

"The method of disproving an argument by showing that it leads to an absurd consequence." Gilmer, The Law Dictionary, 283.

Reify

To give concrete existence to that which is otherwise an abstraction.

Reification

"Confusing language about reality with reality itself.  Postmodernists charge that others "reify" concepts when they forget that all their ideas and observations are merely linguistic constructs."  (McCallum, The Death of Truth, 284).

Relativism

A philosophical approach to truth which states that a truth claim is true based on the individual or group that accepts the claim; subjectivism; conventionalism; doing what is right in one's own eyes (cf. Jdg. 17:6; 21:25; Prov. 26:12; Isa. 5:20; 2 Tim. 4:3-4).

S

Science

1 orig., the state or fact of knowledge; knowledge  2 systematized knowledge derived from observation, study, and experimentation carried on in order to determine the nature or principles of what is being studied  3 a branch of knowledge or study, esp. one concerned with establishing and systematizing facts, principles, and methods, as by experiments and hypotheses [the science of mathematics]  4 a) the systematized knowledge of nature and the physical world  b) any branch of this: see natural science  5 skill based on systematized training [the science of cooking]  *6 [S-] short for christian science (Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1202).

Scientism

"The belief—and the worldview—that science is the only method for obtaining knowledge."  (McCallum, The Death of Truth, 284).

Sin

"The concept of sin embraces the gamut of human failure from the transgression of a single commandment to the ruin of one's whole existence.  The most general word for sin is hamartia, which with its cognates designates offences against morals, laws, men or gods.  adikia and its cognates cover a more specialized area, drawn from the legal world; as the opposite to —> righteousness (dikaiosynē; cf. dikē —> punishment), it denotes unrighteousness, injustice and unjust deeds, parabasis and its cognates throw light on a further aspect: in particular they refer to transgression of the law.  On the other hand, paraptōma, which is derived from parapiptō, fall down beside, lose one's way, fail, means more generally a moral lapse and an offence for which one is responsible."  (Günther, "Sin" in NIDNTT, 5:573).

Sine Qua Non

Latin expression which means "without which it could not be."  The indispensable condition.  E.g., God could not be God if he was contingent upon someone or something else for his existence.

Skepticism

The denunciation that immutable truth can be recognized.

Slanting

Also known as "begging the question," or the assumption of what is to be proved; propagandizing is a kind of slanting, through the omission of relevant information; euphemizing through the use of words or phrases intended to sway opinion rather than state the reality (e.g., calling abortion "pro-choice," drunkenness a "disease," and engaging in the character assassination of another person the "right to free speech").

Sloganeering

Substituting a slogan as a substitute for a sound argument (e.g., Why do you like the Dallas Cowboys?  Because they're "America's Team!"  Or, Do you know why I drive a Toyota?  Because "I Love My Toyota!").

Solipsism

The worldview which asserts that nothing exists or is real apart from the self.

Soteriology

Compound Greek word, from soteria, meaning "salvation," "deliverance," "rescue," and logos — which means "word," "study," "statement," "speech."  Therefore, soteriology is the study or doctrine concerning salvation.

Sound Argument

"An argument that is both logically valid and has true premises is called a sound argument."  (Moreland & Craig, Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview, 29).

Special Case

Fallacy in argumentation when a special principle is applied to a general case.  It is the opposite of dicto simpliciter.  E.g., Many 12-year-olds have great difficulty driving a car.  Therefore, Drivers Education courses should be abandoned.

"Straw man" Argument

Refutation of a weak version of one's own understanding of an opponent's view of something.  E.g., God's people follow God and His prophets.  Joseph Smith (of Mormon fame) claimed to be a prophet of God.  Therefore, rejecting him means that one is rejecting God.

Subjectivism

The ethical point of view which asserts that what might be true, ethical, or right for one person is not necessarily true, ethical, or right for all people, regardless of their locale.  "Morality becomes fluid and privatized, changing to fit the circumstances and conforming to convenience.  Morality is nothing more that personal preference and opinion."  (Powell, Guide to Christian Apologetics, 79).

Summum Bonum

Latin expression meaning "the greatest good," "the highest good," or "the supreme good."

Syllogism

A deductive argument which typically contains at least two propositions and a conclusion.  Hence, a syllogistic argument for the infallibility of the Bible might proceeds as follows: Proposition #1–God is infallible.  Proposition #2–God authored the Bible.  Conclusion–The Bible is infallible.

Syncretism

The combining of conflicting beliefs and/or statements into one reconciled whole.

Syntax

The systematic or orderly arrangement of words in a sentence which form meaningful expressions designed to communicate specific ideas and concepts intended by the author.

T

Tabula Rasa

The belief that the mind is a "blank slate," and that from sensory impressions received through personal experiences (i.e., empirical data), ideas are formed in the mind about knowledge and truth. 

Tautology

A logical statement that is true by definition, yet says nothing by way of affirmation of something in the real world.  Therefore, to say that a circle is round says nothing about any particular thing, again, in the real world.

Teleology

Compound Greek word from telos, meaning "end," "goal," "outcome," and logos — which means "word," "study," "statement," "speech."   Therefore, teleology is the study or doctrine about goals, purposes, or outcomes of a particular subject.

Teleological Argument

An approach to the Design argument which asserts that there is a goal or purpose to existence, which includes the things which comprise it, and rebuts the idea that all that exists is the product of meaningless, random chance.

Terminus A Quo

The starting point or the point from which measurement begins.

Terminus Ad Quem

The ending point or the terminal point of measurement.

The One and The Many

Philosophical proposition which attempts to resolve the conflict between the ideal and empirical worlds in response to man's fear of death.  The One is the objective standard by which meaning is arrived at after considering the many particulars in the time-space universe.  In other words, one cannot arrive at true perspective on existence by only examining the particulars in existence without considering the One who gives them meaning.

Theism

The Christian belief which states that there is One God, who is not only personal, but who is also distinct from creation in his being and essence.

Thomism

The rationalistic teaching or doctrine of Thomas Aquinas.

Transcendent

Supernatural; preeminent; beyond; over and above, as in God transcends the finite universe by existing in another dimension unrelated to the universe, and yet immanently and personally participates in the universe.  Hence, God would exist regardless if the finite universe did not. 

Truth

That which is consistent with objective reality as based in the mind and person of God.

Truth-claim

A proposition about something or someone that either is, or is not, in conformity with objective reality.

U

Universals

The objective realities upon which the particulars of the universe have their meaning, with the person of Almighty God being the ultimate universal truth from which all objective reality has its existence.

Univocal

That which has only one meaning, as opposed to that which has been equivocated, and has two or more meanings.

Unsound Argument

An argument that either contains faulty premises which lead to a faulty conclusion, or an argument which has sound premise, yet a faulty conclusion.  E.g., Chickens lay eggs.  Eggs are Martians.  Therefore, chickens hatch Martians.  Or, Monkeys are mammals.  Humans are mammals.  Therefore, monkeys are humans, or vice versa.

Utilitarianism

The philosophical ethic which teaches that the greatest amount of good should be brought about for the greatest number of people.  Therefore, if it was believed that providing universal healthcare for the majority of the population was "good," and that Bill Gates ought to pay for it, then it could be said that that health care policy was based in Utilitarianism.

V

Valid

True; consistent; credible.

Value

The worth of a thing or person; ethical criteria for how a person chooses to live life; standard of operation.

W

Warrant

Justification; "one has sufficient evidence for the belief, one formed and maintained the belief in a reliable way (e.g., on the basis of his senses or expert testimony and not by palm reading), or one's intellectual and sensory faculties were functioning properly in a good intellectual environment when he formed the belief in question…there is a big difference between a mere true belief and a true belief that has warrant or justification."  (Moreland & Craig, Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview, 74).

Weltanschauung

German word for "Worldview."

Worldview

"A worldview is a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) which we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic makeup of our world."  (Sire, The Universe Next Door, 16).

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